FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
You are already familiar with the concept of social change and the theories associated with it. Change takes place in all human societies and at all times. Sometimes, it is sudden as when a revolution occurs to replace the old order. At other times, it is gradual and hardly perceptible. If change does not occur on its own, it may be induced by certain factors. Therefore, it is important for a sociologist to study these factors which either give impetus to or resist change. In this lesson, we are going to read about the factors of change.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson, you will be able to:
explain the mechanism of social change;
identify the underlying causes of social change; and appreciate the roles of various factors which bring about change in society.
WHAT IS FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Social change is a complex and multi-faceted phenomenon. Since change in one sphere affects other spheres of social life, it is desirable to take an integrated view of the processes of social change. This will facilitate a clear understanding of the role of various factors which have a collective impact on this process. We can then appreciate and understand the various changes taking place and be able to identify the correlation and causative effects of the various factors underlying these changes.
Social change occurs due to various factors. Some of these factors are:
a) endogenous (i.c. internal to the society concerned); and
b) exogenous.
Internal factors could refer to the infrastructural facilities, their distribution among people and people's access to them. Social change occurs due to interaction and conflict caused by differential values of the old and the young, the literate and the illiterate, the urban and the rural folk.
External factors of change emphasise on the impact of such forces in a society which are beyond human control like natural disasters and unexpected developments in technology. Now we take up some factors that affect social change. The factors that we will be studying in this lesson are-
a) demographic
b) technology
c) cultural
d) political
e) economic
f) education
DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
By demographic factors, we mean the factors that determine the numbers, composition, selection and the hereditary quality of successive generations.
Changes in population, both in numbers and composition, have a far-reaching effect on society. When population increases or decreases, size and composition of a population changes. Change in the size of a population may bring about a change in the economic life of the people, which may further bring about a change in various other aspects of human life like social, cultural and political.
The swift and steady decline of both birth rate and death rate has led to tremendous social transformation. With improved sanitary conditions and medical facilities, India has experienced a dramatic increase in the sphere of population. This phenomenal increase in population has, in turn, given rise to a variety of social problems like unemployment, child labour. growth of slums, increased crime rate and social tensions.
Decline in death rate has led to increased population growth compared to a century ago. Additionally, availability of better medical facilities has enabled them to be active till old age. This has brought about a perceptible (visible) change in social attitudes and beliefs.
When the growth of population threatens the standard of living, it inspires a change in attitude. People are more open and accept the use of contraceptives, one child family norm and in some cases couples decide to adopt a child.
Had we witnessed a corresponding decline in the birth rate, it would have meant a higher standard of living, the emancipation of women from child bearing drudgery, better care for the young and perhaps a healthier society. Of course, then, fewer young people would enter the workforce to support an ageing population.
There is also a close relationship between the growth of population and the level of physical health and vitality of the people. On the increase in the number of mouths to feed, there is chronic malnutrition and other related diseases. These further lead to physical lethargy, incompetence, apathy and lack of enterprise. All these affect the quality of the population and the social structure and social institutions.
In the Indian context, we notice that an increase in population has resulted in an increase in unemployment, in poverty, in urbanisation, in the number of slums, and an increase in the burden on infrastructural facilities. These, in turn, have resulted in the absence of adequate facilities, rise in nuclear families and, over time, have altered social relationships in a perceptible manner.
INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Answer in TRUE or FALSE.
a. With improved medical facilities and sanitary conditions, population increases.
b. Decline in birth rate would also lower the standard of living.
TECHNOLOGY AS A FACTOR OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Technological progress has often triggered a long lasting change in society. Development and change in human societies have been linked with development and change in technology.
Sociologists say "Technology changes society by changing our environment to which we, in turn, adapt. This change is usually in the material environment and the adjustments we make to these changes often modifies customs and social institutions."
In earlier times, technology was simple and societies were simple too. Traditional society was characterised by manual labour and family was the unit of production. Production was based on human and animal power and was for domestic consumption. There was neither a governing profit motive in economic transactions nor whatever was produced was brought into market.
After the middle of the nineteenth century, the industrial revolution and industrialisation took the form of a definite system. From the viewpoint of technology, the production organisation developed some specific features. In this system, instead of being influenced and controlled by the environment, man tried to control it. Economy started to be based on differentiation, complex division of labour, huge production and a mechanised system of production. Large companies and corporations came into being, some of which with the passage of time have acquired a multinational character.
Industrial societies are very complex and distinctly different from the earlier simple societies. In such societies, there is:
(i) importance of capital instead of labour as against the norm in simple societies;
(ii) rise of factories as units of production instead of family;
(iii) use of steam, electricity and atomic power instead of energy produced by human and animal power,
(iv) use of machines in place of human and animal labour;
(v) production is for exchange in the market and for profits and not just for domestic consumption;
(vi) development of world market instead of local market; and
(vii) Improved means of transport and communication and a currency based economy.
Modem technology and man made conditions have changed not only the system and quantity of production but also production relationships. Modern industrial relationships have given birth to companies, corporations, and share market. multinational companies, banks and the union of industrial workers.
INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate word from the bracket:
a. Traditional society was characterised by ---------------- labour. (mechanised, manual)
b. Production in industrial society is for ----------------- (profit, domestic consumption)
c. Industrialisation has led to the development of ----------------- market. (local, world)
CULTURAL FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
By cultural factors we refer mainly to ideas, knowledge, values, beliefs, inventions and exchange. Culture provides the base for inventions and discoveries.
Social systems are directly or indirectly the creations of cultural values. Any change in values or belief systems on the part of social group affects social institutions. To illustrate this, we can see that the rise of nuclear families has changed the family system in India in a significant manner. The joint family system has slowly disintegrated and this has altered relationships within the family.
New social values and beliefs can also produce social change. Conflict between the old and new values leads to the creation of a completely new value system. For example, during the Mughul rule in India, the Sufis started writing in Hindi. This led to the development of Hindi literature. Urdu also grew as a hybrid of Hindi and Persian. Arabic words also crept into this new language. Akbar, one of the most powerful Mughal emperors propagated the concept of a state religion called Din-i-illahi-a synthesis of Hinduism and Islam. Besides this, Hindu and Muslim kings both recognised literary and artistic abilities in individuals from both the communities. The teachings of Islam greatly influenced Kabir and Nanak.
Sociologists have considered the role of cultural factors in bringing about social change. On the one hand, they consider the inter-relationship between religions and social structure as one aspect of culture; on the other hand, they analyse the moral code of various religions and their impact on the character of its economic system.
One of the conclusions is that the moral code of Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam did not create the necessary wisdom and understanding that was required for the development of capitalism. Cultures associated with these religions were more concerned with the otherworldly pursuits. Therefore, they did not lay emphasis on economic development and material achievements.
As opposed to this, the moral code of the Protestanism emphasised the "this- worldly" aspect, i.e. the individuals should work hard, accumulate wealth, invest, value their time and be focussed on achievement-oriented goals while living in this world. These cultural values present in the Protestant ethics led to a spirit of capitalism in Western Europe. Thus, we see a corelation between our religious beliefs and their influence on the structure of our institutions.
Social change occurs through cultural contact between different societies. Diffusion is an important mechanism of social change. One society adopts the cultural traits of another through prolonged contact as in travel, trade and commerce as also through sudden events like war where new and hitherto secret technologies reveal themselves.
Cultural mores as well as new technology are borrowed and adopted when societies find that they fill a vacuum or answer a felt need. Borrowing of cultural traits from an advanced society is commonly seen in developing countries and societies as they try to become modern. Diffusion of cultural traits also takes place through personal contacts and interaction between members of two or more cultures. This can be seen in the changes that crept in Indian society due to sustained contacts with Greeks, Muslims and the British. Indian music and architecture was greatly influenced by Islam. New schools like khayal developed due to the influence of Persian music and new instruments like tabla and sitar. In architecture, the Indo- Sarcenic style appeared with spacious interiors, massive domes, arches and minarets. Sufism was highly influenced by the mysticism of Hindus, while the monotheistic ideas of Islam influenced Hindu society, particularly some leaders of the Bhakti movement like Kabir.
Diffusion also takes place through mass media as it transmits and diffuses information to a large number of people. It has accelerated the process of change by spreading the elements of individual cultures to people far away and thus resulted in a form of cultural modernisation. This synthesis results in a new form of culture, which has elements of both the traditional and the modern. Folk songs and western music have combined to create a new style of popular music.
It is, however, interesting to note that while cultural diffusion quickly changed the material life of people, non-material aspects like religion, ideology and beliefs are slow to change.
This phenomenon is known as "cultural lag". When non-material culture does not adjust itself readily to the material changes, it results in a lag between the two. The problem of adjustment in modem societies can be explained concept by this where the material aspects of life change at a much quicker pace than the non-material aspects of culture. All societies need to manage this change. Societies where the non-material aspects of culture guide material changes towards peace and social harmony are likely to see more progress than others.
INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Answer in 1-2 words:
a. What was the name of the religion propagated by Akbar?
b. What is the term used for transmission of customs and practices from one society to another?
c. What are non-material aspects of culture?
POLITICAL FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
In this section, we shall examine the role of the state and of legislation in bringing about social change.
Laws: Laws act as an instrument of socio-economic and political change in society. Since laws are backed by the state and have a coercive nature, individuals conform to them.
(i) Laws ensure a certain degree of uniformity of behaviour among diverse groups of individuals and their varied cultural and behavioural patterns.
(ii) Laws also seek to mitigate social evils and to uplift the lower sections of society. In India, laws protect the interests of the weaker sections of society, particularly of those belonging to the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward castes. Laws also protect the interests of women, children and other disadvantaged sections of society.
(iii) Law performs refacmations function for society. Laws try to alter age old customs which are considered inimical to social stability and progress. Thus, in 1829, a law was passed banning sati. A century later, another law fixed the minimum age for marriage for boys (18 years) and girls (14 years). Still later, another law has banned the practice of giving and taking of dowry. On a different note, Article 17 of the Indian Constitution has abolished untouchability and today the practice of untouchability is an offence punishable by imprisonment.
The role of law as an instrument of social change finds full expression where law comes in confrontation with social customs.
However, laws alone can not bring about social transformation. They need to be adequately supported by the structure of society and by the people at large too.
Public opinion is a stronger means of change. Laws alone can not change traditions and belief systems. This explains why despite having laws prohibiting evils like sati, child marriage, dowry and untouchability, they still persist in our country. Despite these limitations, laws still remain an effective means of bringing about socio-economic and political transformation in society. Sociologist have referred to these functions of law as:
(i) an indicator of change
(ii) an initiator of change
(iii) an integrator of change
Role of Elections
Besides law, the right to vote and the role of elections are also important factors of social change. The right to vote stimulates interest in public affairs and is an important means of imparting education to masses. The parties and the leaders take this opportunity to educate the electorate on important political, economic and social issues. Besides this, it inculcates a sense of self-respect and responsibility among the citizens.
(i) Elections themselves throw up a variety of issues, which highlight the problems, goals and objectives concerning the socio-economic conditions of the village, state and the country at large.
(ii) Elections are a form of political communication between the government and the governed. They are a means by which the rulers become sensitive to the demands of the people. This two way awareness and communication between the electorate and the elected leads to social change.
INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate word from the bracket:
a. Sati was banned in ----------------- (1828, 1829)
b. Article ----------------- of the Indian constitution abolished untouchability. (17,27)
c. Elections inculcate a sense of ----------------- among the citizens. (complacence, responsibility)
ECONOMIC FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Economic factors influence the quantity and direction of social change. We shall study the effect of these factors by first seeking a theoretical underpinning for our analysis and by studying the available evidence. In particular, we shall study the:
1. Marxian view
2. Impact of Industrialisation
3. Green Revolution
The Marsian View
Karl Marx is the chief architect of the economic theory of social change. He believes that social change is basically the result of economic factors. The mode of production determines the social, cultural, religious and the political aspect of society.
Marx traced the development of society from agricultural to feudalism to capitalism and finally, to socialism. Capitalism emerged because of the contradictions in feudalism. Socialism would emerge from capitalism as a result of the contradictions in capitalism. There would be a class struggle between the two classes whose interest, clash because of their diverse, conflicting aims-the bourgeois (the owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (the workers who work for a wage under the bourgeois). A revolution carried out by the workers against the capitalist would end the ills of capitalism and lead to the establishment of a socialist society. A socialist society is an ideal society as there would be no classes and hence no struggle. Classlessness and the disappearance of state are the two prominent features of a socialist state.
Some evidence of what Marx espouses is seen when one studies the process and impact of industrialisation.
IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALIZATION
The industrial revolution which started in Europe in the late 17th century slowly found its way across the globe. The pace may have been varied in different parts of the world, but the end results were quite similar. The following changes were noticeable and had a degree of permanence attached to them:
(i) Production moved out of households to factories.
(ii) Capital acquired a greater role in the production process.
(iii) The occupational structure of the workforce changed from largely agrarian to an increasingly larger industrial workforce.
(iv) People from all strata of society took to industrial activity.
(v) Women moved out of homes in large numbers and entered the workforce.
(vi) Barriers of religion, belief, etc., crumbled as the demand for labour increased,
(vii) Urbanisation took place at an accelerated pace.
(viii) It triggered changes in other spheres like mass transport and communication too, thus radically altering the existing social structure.
All these changes had a dramatic impact on social relationships and brought about a lasting social change.
(i) Emancipation of women was a logical conclusion of this process. Within the family, the role of women changed with their economic independence.
(ii) Similarly, production relationships changed from one amongst kinsmen to a largely impersonal relationship between the "employer" and the "employee" where skills and not loyalty became the prime criterion for employment.
(iii) Caste structure weakened, at least in urban centres and workers of different castes and religions became increasingly comfortable working with each other. Interestingly, on another plane, in the absence of close family network, state and caste associations grew and the social change witnessed was the net outcome of these two opposing processes.
(iv) Urbanisation, in its wake, brought about other changes. Relationships became more impersonal as transactions acquired a commercial character. The provision of facilities like hospitals, schools, smaller houses all meant that the dependence on family decreased. This was also triggered by the revolutionary changes in mass transport system, which enabled people to move to far-flung places where employment opportunities existed.
(v) Finally, the large influx of wage earners and self-employed to urban centres gave rise to a large and powerful middle class in society. This class not only impacted the existing social relationships but also influenced political discourse favouring the ideas of democracy, meritocracy and egalitarianism.
GREEN REVOLUTION
In Europe and most of the west, it was the presence of agricultural surplus which made the industrial revolution possible-both by releasing men and capital. In the Indian context, however, industrialisation was largely an outcome of government policy. Inspired by the Russian model of development, India's second five year plan committed enormous resources to building large scale industrial projects. The agricultural revolution, which should have preceded the process of industrialisation, was noticeable by its absence.
As population rise, consequently the demand for food grew, India found itself depending upon food imports to feed its teeming millions. The situation warranted a close look at increasing agricultural productivity and the answer that finally helped India to become self-sufficient in food has been termed the "Green Revolution", which is a name given to the dramatic changes brought about in the field of agriculture.
We shall now examine the impact of the "Green Revolution" on social relationships and analyse law the social change it brought about.
Green Revolution started in India in the late 1960s in selected regions of the country. The focus at this stage was on wheat and the strategy adopted was to combine the use of capital and technology to boost farm yields. Thus credit, machines, high yield seeds, irrigation and fertilisers became crucial inputs, almost as critical as the land itself. Large farms were favoured as they lent themselves easily to mechanised farming. The results were stunning as farm yields surpassed expectations and the country soon moved from a net importer of food grains to one which maintained a buffer stock.
While the output was significantly higher than earlier, the outcome was not 'necessarily a positive one for all states and for all sections of society at large.
(i) The increasing importance of large tracts of farmland and of capital gave a distinct advantage to that section of society, which had access to them. Relationships, based on land, gave way to an employer-employee relationship. commonly seen in industrial activities.
(ii) Since land reforms had been unevenly implemented in various parts of the country, the Green Revolution was confined to the selected states where it was initiated. This, in turn, triggered large-scale seasonal migration from states like Orissa, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh to Punjab and Haryana-the cradle of the Green Revolution. In social terms, the karta of these families in Orissa. Bihar and U.P were now absent from their villages for a large part of the year. This had a great impact on the family relationships.
(iii) Additionally, another significant outcome was a widening of inequality across states in general and among the "landed" and the "landless" in particular. Finally, the middle castes who had gained access to land in the wake of land reforms became the biggest beneficiaries of these changes and slowly emerged as a dominant force in Indian politics.
INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Answer in TRUE or FALSE.
a. Bourgeois were the owners of the means of production. ( )
b. Production relationships became more impersonal in the wake of industrial revolution. ( )
c. Following the industrial revolution, a strong middle class emerged in urban centres. ( )
d. Green Revolution first started in the states of Bihar and Orissa. ( )
EDUCATION AS FACTOR OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Education plays an important role in social change. While, on the one hand, it is responsible for handing down traditions, culture, knowledge and skills from one generation to another; on the other, it acts as an agent of social change. New ideas and values are initiated by it and become the goals for the young generation to pursue and achieve.
One of the sociologists has defined education as "the influence exercised by the adult generation upon those who are not yet ready for adult life'. Its objective is to awaken and develop in the child those physical, intellectual and moral conditions, which are required of him, both by society as a whole and by the immediate social environment.
Society thus achieves two goals through education:
(i) to socialise, shape and develop the individual according to the social needs; and
(i) to fulfil society's needs concerning human resources such as training for the specialised skills in industry and technology of the modern economy.
Formal and Informal Education
Before we explain the role of education as a factor of social change, it is important to understand the two main types of education system-formal and informal.
Education which is imparted in a well-defined institutional setting, is formal and that which an individual acquires in the course of his daily activities and interactions in the family and in society at large is informal.
Informal education dominates in societies, which are deficient in proper schools or where a formal schooling system is as yet undeveloped. In tribal and agrarian societies this is apparent. In such societies, children learn the language, traditional practices, fables, folk songs, music and productive skills like cattle rearing and sowing, etc., through observation and interaction with their kinsmen.
Even in advanced societies, children receive informal education alongwith the formal learning they undertake in schools. For example, manners, etiquette and social skills are learnt by observation of behaviour of family members and those in the immediate surrounding.
Formal education characterises modern education as we know it today. Its chief components are:
(i) regular and recognised schools;
(ii) definite and properly spelt out content; and
(iii) definite rules and regulations;
We now focus on the role of education as a factor of social change. The impact of education on different aspects of social life can be examined by studying the following:
(i) socialisation and social control;
(ii) development of human resources and stratification; and
(iii) political education.
SOCIALISATION AND SOCIAL CONTROL
Every society has its history, heritage and culture which it strives to preserve. To attain betterment, societies also set goals for themselves. Through school curricula, societies seek to achieve both these ends. Schools educate children in the established value systems and also try to prepare them to cope with the changing conditions both within the society and in the world at large. Hence, while on the one hand, children learn about their history, culture and philosophy, they are also made aware of developments in science and technology and taught new skills like computer skills. Through socialisation, society wants to mould individuals according to its existing structure and hence modern education also lays emphasis on subjects like law, human rights, democracy and tries to inculcate a world view in the students. Socialisation, through the curriculum of schools tries to sensitise children to real world problems like war, poverty, AIDS and unemployment.
Modem education is change-oriented and therefore, the course structure in schools and colleges is periodically reviewed and modified to suit the needs of a fast changing society.
DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES
Education is the cornerstone of human resource development, It trains individuals in the requisite knowledge and skills required by society, thereby enabling them to fulfil important roles in society.
In simple societies, family was the basic unit of production. The individuals learnt the required skills of the family occupation at home itself. These skills could range from carpentry to craftsmanship, jewellery fabrication, working with metals to agriculture and allied activities. But as societies grew in diversity and complexity, a wide range of occupations emerged requiring specific skills. These could no longer be met at the level of the family. Hence, societies through their educational systems tried to meet these growing demands.
A vast range of specialised subjects like medicine, public health, engineering, management, law, forensic science, physical, biological, agricultural and social sciences, are taught in modern educational institutions. Education thus ensures the allocation of positions in society suitable to the skills of the individuals. It provides an opportunity for individuals to realise their potential and frees them from being tied down to the occupation of their forefathers. An educational system that nurtures and promotes "meritocracy" enables competent people to occupy significant positions in society.
Specialised education, coupled with dramatic developments in technology and transport, has radically augmented geographical mobility and made it possible for individuals to travel great distances to practice their craft. The movement of a large number of software engineers, from India to the west, bears ample testimony to the power of modern education to open new doors and offer new and rewarding opportunities.
However, one must bear in mind that while modern education and professional mobility has enabled individuals to improve their economic and social well-being and provided new avenues of achievement, there has also been a dramatic increase in the social inequality between the educated and the uneducated class. Simultaneously, it is also not uncommon now to find different individuals in a family following different vocations and consequently having different social statues.
Education also brings political awareness. Through education, governments try to communicate their national goals to the citizens in order to ensure cohesiveness and unity. Modern education system tries to popularise the ideals of democracy, liberty and equality while familiarising the students with their unique history and culture. The recent debate about changes in the school curriculum underlines the role of education in shaping political ideology.
Social change is a continuous and unending process in every society. All societies, traditional and modern, are constantly evolving. These changes are most often gradual and barely perceptible till we attempt an inter-temporal analysis. However, occasionally there are events which bring about dramatic and sudden changes in society.
There have been moments in history when a single individual like Gandhi or Lenin alters the course of the nation and society.
INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Answer in 1-2 sentences:
a. Define Education.
b. What are the features of formal education?
c. How does the school curriculum socialise children?
WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
Social change is a permanent feature of all societies and at all times. It may be slow and almost imperceptible or it may be sudden and dramatic.
Various factors, such as technological progress, demographic changes, cultural diffusion, economic and education, alter structural relationships in a society and bring about social change. These factors often act in concert resulting in changes either in a serial manner or sometimes in parallel too.
Changes in population, both in numbers and composition, have a far-reaching effect on social relationships and are a main cause of the social change that we observe.
Technology changes society by changing our environment to which we in turn, adapt. This change is usually in the material environment and the adjustments we make to these changes often modifies our culture and social institutions."
Social systems are directly or indirectly the creations of cultural values and any change in values or belief systems on the part of social groups affects social institutions. New social values and beliefs can also produce social change.
Laws, public opinion and the electoral process also act as an instrument of social change.
Changes in the organisation of the production system affects production relationships and contributes to social change. Industrialization played a great role in weakening caste system and in changing the role of women in society. Similarly, the Green Revolution, by enriching certain states and castes more than others has contributed to social change.
Education acts as an agent of social change through development of human resources and stratification and political education. New ideas and values initiated by it become the goals for the young generation to pursue and achieve. It inculcates a spirit of inquiry amongst the young which brings about great social change subsequently.
TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Explain the impact of demography on social change.
2. How are the industrial societies different from simple societies?
3. Explain the role of diffusion as a means of social change.
4. Highlight the role of elections in social change.
5. Discuss the socio-economic consequences of industrialisation.
6. How did the Green Revolution lead to social change in India? 7. Discuss the role of education in bringing about social change.
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